THE PAST PERFECT TENSE (passado perfeito)

THE PAST PERFECT TENSE

THE PAST PERFECT TENSE (passado perfeito)

Expressa uma ação que aconteceu no passado, antes de outra ação, também no passado.

Costumamos dizer que ele é "o passado no passado". Ele equivale ao
pretérito mais-que-perfeito em português.

o Past Perfect deve estar sempre inserido em um contexto já no passado, ou sua utilização estará errada.

Exemplo:

I HAD called the ambulance when the police arrived.

I HAD just finished my homework when you called.

Formação do Past Perfect tense:

HAD + VERBO NO PARTICÍPIO

(O auxiliar do passado perfeito é o verbo HAD)

( Veja tabela de verbos regulares e irregulares em Comunique-se em Inglês)

Exemplo de conjugação do past perfect com verbo to go:

Affirmative Form

I had gone ( I'd gone) Eu tinha ido
You had gone (You'd gone) Você tinha ido
He had gone (He'd gone) Ele tinha ido
She had gone (She'd gone) Ela tinha ido
It had gone (It'd gone) Ele/Ela tinha ido
We had gone (We'd gone) Nós tínhamos ido
You had gone (You'd gone) Vocês tinham ido
They had gone ( They'd gone) Eles/Elas tinham ido

Negative Form

I hadn't gone ( Eu não tinha ido)
You hadn't gone ( Você não tinha ido)
He hadn't gone (Ele não tinha ido)
She hadn't gone ( Ela não tinha ido)
It hadn't gone ( Ele/Ela não tinha ido)
We hadn't gone ( Nós não tínhamos ido)
You hadn't gone ( Vocês não tinham ido)
They hadn't gone (Eles não tinham ido)

Interrogative Form

Had I gone? (Eu tinhaido?) 
Had you gone? ( Você tinha ido?)
Had he gone? (Ele tinha ido?) 
Had she gone? (Ela tinha ido?) 
Had it gone? (Ele/Ela tinha ido?)
Had we gone? (Nós tínhamos ido?) 
Had you gone? (Vocês tinham ido?) 
Had they gone? (Eles tinham ido?)

Interrogative-Negative Form

Hadn't I gone? (Eu nãotinha ido?)
Hadn't you gone?(Você não tinha ido?) 
Hadn't he gone? (Ele não tinha ido?)
 Hadn't she gone?(Ela não tinha ido?) 
Hadn't it gone?(Ele/ela não tinha ido?) 
Hadn't we gone?(Nós não tínhamos ido?)
 Hadn't you gone?(Vocês não tinham ido?) 
Hadn't they gone? (Eles não tinham ido?)

Quando utilizar o Past Perfect

1. O Past Perfect normalmente é utilizado para relacionar duas ações ocorridas no passado.
Ex.:Susan had already left when I arrived.
(Susan já tinha saído quando eu cheguei) 
2. O Past Perfect é utilizado para expressar algo que ocorreu antes de uma ação ou
evento no passado (Simple Past).
Ex.: I had seen many places before I moved here.
She had never eaten clams before her trip to Toronto.

3. Usamos o Past Perfect para expressar a duração do primeiro evento, até
o ponto em que o segundo evento ocorreu.
Ex.: She had been in town for 6 months when she finally found a decent place to live.
They had had that same old car until it got stolen last year.

NOTE:

É importante notar que quando queremos especificar o momento em que o
evento ocorreu, usando as palavras after ou before na sentença, o Simple Past também pode ser usado, o qual é tambémcorreto.
 Ex.:We had worked in Bolivia from 1998 to 2003 before we got transfered to Brazil.
We worked in Bolivia from 1998 to 2003 before we got transfered to Brazil.

Mas se não especificarmos o ponto no tempo em que o evento aconteceu, temos que usar o Past Perfect, caso contrário a sentença adquire um significado diferente.

Ex.: They had lived in China before coming here. => Em algum momento do
passado, eles moraram na China.

They lived in China before coming here. => Eles moraram na China exatamente antes de chegar aqui.

4. Existem algumas expressões indicadoras deste tempo verbal, que geralmente são: until, till, before,after,when.

Source: http://englishselftaught.blogspot.com/2008/01/past-perfect-tense.html

Past Perfect - Simple Past (Statements) - Exercise

Explanation: Past Perfect - Simple Past contrasted

Put the verbs in brackets into the gaps in the correct tense Past Perfect or Simple Past. Example: Pat _________ (to live) in London before he _________ (to move) to Rome. Answer: Pat had lived in London before he moved to Rome.

1) After Fred (to spend) his holiday in Italy he (to want) to learn Italian. 2) Jill (to phone) Dad at work before she (to leave) for her trip. 3) Susan (to turn on) the radio after she (to wash) the dishes. 4) When she (to arrive) the match already (to start). 5) After the man (to come) home he (to feed) the cat. 6) Before he (to sing) a song he (to play) the guitar. 7) She (to watch) a video after the children (to go) to bed. 8) After Eric (to make) breakfast he (to phone) his friend. 9) I (to be) very tired because I (to study) too much. 10) They (to ride) their bikes before they (to meet) their friends.

Source:
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises/tenses/past_perfect_simple_past.htm

Past Perfect - Simple Past (Statements) - Exercise

1) After Fred had spent his holiday in Italy he wanted to learn Italian. 2) Jill had phoned Dad at work before she left for her trip. 3) Susan turned on the radio after she had washed the dishes. 4) When she arrived the match had already started. 5) After the man had come home he fed the cat. 6) Before he sang a song he had played the guitar. 7) She watched a video after the children had gone to bed. 8) After Eric had made breakfast he phoned his friend. 9) I was very tired because I had studied too much. 10) They had ridden their bikes before they met their friends.

COUNT DRACULA [IT'S HALLOWEEN TIME]

O CONDE DRÁCULA

Inspiração

O Conde Drácula do livro de Bram Stoker pode ter sido inspirado no voivode (príncipe) Vlad Tepes, que nasceu em 1431 e governou o território que corresponde à atual Romênia. Nessa época, a Romênia estava dividida entre o mundo cristão e o mundo muçulmano, (Turquia). Vlad III ficou conhecido pela perversidade com que tratava seus inimigos. Embora não fosse um vampiro, sua crueldade alimentava o imaginário de modo que logo passou para o conhecimento popular como um vampiro.

O pai de Vlad III, Vlad II, era membro de uma sociedade cristã romana (de Roma) chamada Ordem do Dragão, criada por nobres da região para defender o território da invasão dos turcos otomanos. Por isso Vlad II era chamado de Dracul (dragão), e, por conseqüência, seu filho passou a ser chamado Draculea (filho do dragão) - a terminação "ea" significa filho. A palavra “dracul”, entretanto, possuía um segundo significado (“diabo”) que foi aplicado aos membros da família Draculea por seus inimigos e possivelmente também por camponeses supersticiosos.

Vlad III era conhecido por sua pervesidade e crueldade. Certa vez, dois súditos se esqueceram de tirar o chapéu para reverenciar sua chegada e, por causa disso, Vlad mandou pregar o chapéu em suas cabeças.

Também dizem as lendas que um dia Vlad viu um aldeão com a camisa toda suja e lhe perguntou se sua esposa era saudável. O aldeão respondeu que sim e sua mulher teve ambas as mãos decepadas; e Vlad arrumou outra esposa para o aldeão e a mostrou o que acontecera com a antiga para que servisse de exemplo. Vlad tinha prazer em comer em frente de suas vítimas com os corpos empalados ouvindo seus gritos de agonia.

Muitos desses feitos levam a crer que Vlad III é a principal inspiração para o personagem, a crença que o conde Drácula é morto vivo veio de um fato que em uma de suas muitas batalhas ele levou um forte golpe na cabeça, que o deixou em coma, depois de ver o seu líder cair seus homens bateram em retirada levando consigo seu corpo e antes da fuga ser realizada, Vlad III acorda do coma como se nada tivesse acontecido e logo depois de recobrar os sentidos retornou a batalha levando seu exercito a vitória e a uma de suas mais sangrentas batalhas, criando assim a crença que ele havia retornado dos mortos como um morto vivo

[editar] Conde Drácula

A biografia de Drácula muda conforme a adaptação de sua obra, mas sempre há em comum que ele, na Idade Média, foi um conde da Transilvânia que se tornou um vampiro e feiticeiro, e assolou a Inglaterra séculos depois. Para uma ligeira idéia, consulte os links de seus filmes abaixo.

http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conde_dr%C3%A1cula

Count Dracula

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Count Dracula
Dracula character
Count Dracula as portrayed by Béla Lugosi in 1931's Dracula
Created by	Bram Stoker
Information
Species	Vampire
Gender	Male
Spouse(s)	Brides of Dracula
Nationality	Székely, Hungarian

Count Dracula is a fictional character, the titular antagonist of Bram Stoker's 1897 Gothic horror novel Dracula and archetypal vampire. Some aspects of his character have been inspired by the 15th century Romanian general and Wallachian Prince Vlad III the Impaler. In the United States, the character entered the public domain in 1899^{[citation needed]} and consequently appears frequently in all manner of popular culture, from films to animated media to breakfast cereals.

Contents  [hide]  1 In Stoker's novel 1.1 Biography 1.2 Characteristics 1.3 Powers, abilities and weaknesses 2 In popular culture 3 Scholarship 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links

[edit] In Stoker's novel

In Bram Stoker's novel, Count Dracula's characteristics, powers, abilities and weaknesses are narrated in a piecemeal way by multiple narrators, from different perspectives.^[1] The most informative of these narrators are Jonathan Harker, John Seward, and Mina Harker.

[edit] Biography

Count Dracula (his first name is never given in the novel) is a centuries-old vampire, sorcerer and Transylvanian nobleman, who claims to be a Székely descended from Attila the Hun. He inhabits a decaying castle in the Carpathian Mountains near the Borgo Pass. Unlike the vampires of Eastern European folklore, which are portrayed as repulsive, corpse-like creatures, Dracula exudes a veneer of aristocratic charm. In his conversations with Jonathan Harker, he reveals himself as deeply proud of his boyar heritage and nostalgic for the past times, which he admits have become only a memory of heroism, honor and valor in modern times.
Details of his early life are obscure, but it seems that Dracula studied the black arts at the academy of Scholomance in the Carpathian Mountains, overlooking the town of Sibiu (also known as Hermannstadt) and became proficient in alchemy and magic.^[2] Taking up arms, as befitting his rank and status as a Voivode, he led troops against the Turks across the Danube. According to Van Helsing: "He must indeed have been that Voivode Dracula who won his name against the Turk, over the great river on the very frontier of Turkey-land. If it be so, then was he no common man: for in that time, and for centuries after, he was spoken of as the cleverest and the most cunning, as well as the bravest of the sons of the 'land beyond the forest" .|Mina Harker's Journal, 30 September, Dracula, Chapter 18}} Dead and buried in a great tomb in the chapel of his castle, Dracula returns from death as a vampire and lives for several centuries in his castle with three beautiful female vampires beside him.^[3] They seem to bear a possible family resemblance ^[4] though whether they be his lovers, sisters, daughters, or vampires made by him is not made clear in the narrative.

Max Schreck as Count Orlok, the first confirmed cinematic representation of Dracula.

As the novel begins in the late 19th century, Dracula acts on a long contemplated plan for world domination, and infiltrates London to begin his reign of terror. He summons Jonathan Harker, a newly-qualified English solicitor, to provide legal support for a real estate transaction overseen by Harker's employer. Dracula at first charms Harker with his cordiality and historical knowledge, and even rescues him from the clutches of the three female vampires in the castle. In truth, however, Dracula wishes to keep Harker alive long enough to complete the legal transaction and to learn as much as possible about England.
Dracula leaves his castle and boards a Russian ship, the Demeter, taking along with him boxes of Transylvanian soil, which he needs in order to regain his strength. During the voyage to Whitby, a coastal town in northern England, he sustains himself on the ship's crew members. Only one body is later found, that of the captain, who is found tied up to the ship's helm. The captain's log is recovered and tells of strange events that had taken place during the ship's journey. Dracula leaves the ship in the form of a wolf.
Soon the Count is menacing Harker's fiancée, Wilhelmina "Mina" Murray, and her friend, Lucy Westenra. There is also a notable link between Dracula and Renfield, a patient in an insane asylum compelled to consume insects, spiders, birds, and other creatures — in ascending order of size — in order to absorb their "life force". Renfield acts as a kind of sensor, reacting to Dracula's proximity and supplying clues accordingly. Dracula begins to visit Lucy's bed chamber on a nightly basis, draining her of blood while simultaneously infecting her with the curse of vampirism. Not knowing the cause for Lucy's deterioration, her companions call upon the Dutch doctor Abraham Van Helsing, the former mentor of one of Lucy's suitors. Van Helsing soon deduces her condition's supernatural origins, but does not speak out. Despite an attempt at keeping the vampire at bay with garlic, Dracula entices Lucy out of her chamber late at night and transforms her into one of the undead.
Van Helsing, Harker, and Lucy's former suitors Arthur Holmwood and Quincey Morris enter her crypt and kill her. They later enter Dracula's residence at Carfax, destroying his boxes of earth, depriving the Count of his ability to rest. Dracula leaves England to return to his homeland, but not before biting Mina.
The final section of the novel details the heroes racing Dracula back to Transylvania, and in a climactic battle with Dracula's gypsy bodyguards, finally destroying him. Despite the popular image of Dracula having a stake driven through his heart, Mina's narrative describes his throat being sliced through by Jonathan Harker's kukri and his heart pierced by Morris' Bowie knife (Mina Harker's Journal, 6 November, Dracula Chapter 27). His body then turns into dust, but not before Mina Harker sees an expression of peace on Dracula's face.

[edit] Characteristics

Christopher Lee in Jesus Franco's Count Dracula. In this film, an attempt was made to make Lee resemble the Dracula described in the original novel.

Although early in the novel Dracula dons a mask of cordiality, he often flies into fits of rage when his plans are interfered with. When the three vampire women who live in his castle attempt to seduce Jonathan Harker, Dracula physically assaults one and ferociously berates them for their insubordination. He then relents and talks to them more kindly, telling them that he does indeed love each of them.
Dracula is very passionate about his warrior heritage, emotionally proclaiming his pride to Harker on how the Székely people are infused with the blood of heroes. He does express an interest in the history of the British Empire, speaking admiringly of its people. He has a somewhat primal and predatory worldview; he pities ordinary humans for their revulsion to their darker impulses.
Though usually portrayed as having a strong Eastern European accent, the original novel only specifies that his spoken English is excellent, though strangely toned.
His appearance varies in age. He is described early in the novel as thin, with a long white mustache, pointed ears and sharp teeth. It is also noted later in the novel (Chapter 11 subsection "THE ESCAPED WOLF") by a zookeeper that sees him that he has hooked nose and a pointed beard with a streak of white in it. He is dressed all in black and has hair on his palms. Jonathan Harker described him as an old man; 'cruel looking' and giving an effect of 'extraordinary pallor.'^[5] When angered the Count showed his true bestial nature, his blue eyes flaming red.

I saw... Count Dracula... with red light of triumph in his eyes, and with a smile that Judas in hell might be proud of.

— Jonathan Harker's Journal, Dracula, Chapter 4

As the novel progresses, Dracula is described as taking on a more and more youthful appearance. He shows a rare respect to those that have challenged him. He once remarked that for a man who has not lived a single lifetime, Van Helsing is very wise.

[edit] Powers, abilities and weaknesses

Count Dracula is portrayed in the novel using many different supernatural abilities. He has strength which, according to Van Helsing, is equivalent to that of 20 strong men. Being undead, he is immune to conventional means of attack. The only definite way to kill him is by decapitating him followed by impalement through the heart with a wooden stake, although it is also suggested that shooting him with a sacred bullet would suffice. Like all undead, he has the potential to live forever and never die, though he is not truly immortal as he can be killed by the traditional vampire methods (silver and/or wooden stakes, holy water, etc.). The Count does not have to seek victims regularly, and has the ability to remain inactive for centuries. The Count can defy gravity to a certain extent, being able to climb upside down vertical surfaces in a reptilian manner. He has powerful hypnotic and telepathic abilities, and is also able to command nocturnal animals such as wolves and rats. Dracula can also manipulate the weather, usually creating mists to hide his presence, but also storms such as in his voyage in the Demeter. He can travel onto "unhallowed" ground such as the graves of suicides and those of his victims. He can shapeshift at will, his featured forms in the novel being that of a bat, a wolf, vapor, and fog. He is able to pass through tiny cracks or crevices while retaining his human form, described by Van Helsing as the ability to become "so small." He requires no other sustenance but fresh blood, which has the effect of rejuvenating him.^[6]
According to Van Helsing:

The Nosferatu do not die like the bee when he sting once. He is only stronger, and being stronger, have yet more power to work evil.

— Mina Harker's Journal, Dracula, Chapter 18

One of Dracula's most mysterious powers is the ability to transfer his vampiric condition to others. He slowly transforms Lucy into a vampire and then sets his sights on Mina. Mina mentions having been fed Dracula's blood.
Dracula's powers are not unlimited, however. He is much less powerful in daylight and is only able to shift his form at dawn, noon, and dusk (he can shift freely at night). The sun is not fatal to him, though, as sunlight does not burn and destroy him upon contact. He is repulsed by garlic, crucifixes and sacramental bread, and he can only cross running water at low or high tide. He is also unable to enter a place unless invited to do so; once invited, however, he can approach and leave the premises at will.
While universally feared by the local people of Transylvania and even beyond, he somehow commands the loyalty of gypsies and a band of Slovaks who transport his boxes on their way to London and to serve as an armed convoy bringing his coffin back to the Castle. The Slovaks and gypsies appear to know his true nature, for they laugh at Jonathan Harker, who tries to communicate his plight, and betray Harker's attempt to send a letter through them by giving it to the Count.
Count Dracula is depicted as the "King Vampire," and can control other vampires who were his own victims but also, as per the story "Dracula's Guest", those in farther away lands such as Styria who may or may not have been Dracula's victims. His death can release the curse on any living victim of eventual transformation into vampire. But Van Helsing reveals that were he to successfully escape, his continued existence would ensure that even if he did not victimize Mina Harker further, she would transform into a vampire upon her eventual natural death.
He also requires Transylvanian soil to be nearby to him in order to successfully rest; otherwise, he will not be able to recover his strength. Dracula's powers and weaknesses vary greatly in the many adaptations. Previous and subsequent vampires from different legends have had similar vampire characteristics.

[edit] In popular culture

Main article: Dracula in popular culture

Statue of Béla Lugosi as Count Dracula, at the Hollywood Wax Museum

Dracula is arguably one of the most famous characters in popular culture. He has been portrayed by more actors in more film and television adaptations than any other horror character.^[7] Actors who have played him include Max Schreck, Béla Lugosi, John Carradine, Christopher Lee, Denholm Elliott, Jack Palance, Louis Jourdan, Frank Langella, Klaus Kinski, Gary Oldman, Leslie Nielsen, George Hamilton, Gerard Butler, Richard Roxburgh, Marc Warren, Rutger Hauer, Stephen Billington and Dominic Purcell. The character is closely associated with the cultural archetype of the vampire, and remains a popular Halloween costume.
In 2003, Count Dracula, as portrayed by Lugosi in the 1931 film, was named as the 33rd greatest movie villain by the American Film Institute.

[edit] Scholarship

Portrait of Vlad III Dracula.

Following the publication of In Search of Dracula by Radu Florescu and Raymond McNally in 1972, the supposed connections between the historical Transylvanian-born Vlad III Dracula of Wallachia and Stoker's fictional Dracula attracted popular attention.
Historically, the name "Dracula" is the given name of Vlad Tepes' family, a name derived from a secret fraternal order of knights called the Order of the Dragon, founded by Sigismund of Luxembourg (king of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia, and Holy Roman Emperor) to uphold Christianity and defend the Empire against the Ottoman Turks. Vlad II Dracul, father of Vlad III, was admitted to the order around 1431 because of his bravery in fighting the Turks and was dubbed Dracul (Dragon) thus his son became Dracula (son of the dragon). From 1431 onward, Vlad II wore the emblem of the order and later, as ruler of Wallachia, his coinage bore the dragon symbol.^[8]
Stoker came across the name Dracula in his reading on Romanian history and chose this to replace the name (Count Wampyr) that he had originally intended to use for his villain. However, some Dracula scholars, led by Elizabeth Miller, have questioned the depth of this connection.^[9] They argue that Stoker in fact knew little of the historic Vlad III except for his name. There are sections in the novel where Dracula refers to his own background, and these speeches show that Stoker had some knowledge of Romanian history but probably one of no great depth. Stoker includes few details about Vlad III save for referring to Dracula as "that Voivode Dracula who won his name against the Turks", a quote which ties Stoker's Vampire to the Wallachian prince in earnest, due to Prince Vlad's famed battles with Turks over Wallachian soil. However, while Vlad III was an ethnic Vlach, the fictional Dracula claims to be a Székely.^[10]
It has been suggested by some that Stoker was influenced by the legend of Countess Elizabeth Báthory, who was born in the Kingdom of Hungary and accused of the murder of 80 young women, although these claims of influence may be false.<sup>[11]


SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_Dracula</sup>

O VIRA - SECOS E MOLHADOS /SUPERSTITION [IT'S HALLOWEEN TIME!]

O Vira

Secos & Molhados

O gato preto cruzou a estrada
Passou por debaixo da escada.
E lá no fundo azul
na noite da floresta.
A lua iluminou
a dança, a roda, a festa.
Vira, vira, vira
Vira, vira, vira homem, vira, vira
Vira, vira, lobisomen
Vira, vira, vira
Vira, vira, vira homem, vira, vira
Bailam corujas e pirilampos
entre os sacis e as fadas.
E lá no fundo azul
na noite da floresta.
A lua iluminou
a dança, a roda, a festa.
Vira, vira, vira
Vira, vira, vira homem, vira, vira
Vira, vira, lobisomen
Vira, vira, vira
Vira, vira, vira homem, vira, vira
Bailam corujas e pirilampos
entre os sacis e as fadas.
E lá no fundo azul
na noite da floresta.
A lua iluminou
a dança, a roda, a festa.
Vira, vira, vira
Vira, vira, vira homem, vira, vira
Vira, vira, lobisomen
Vira, vira, vira
Vira, vira, vira homem, vira, vira

FONTE: http://letras.terra.com.br/secos-molhados/70264/

Superstition

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Superstition (disambiguation).

[show]Part of a series of articles on the paranormal

Clay hamsa on a wall, believed to protect the inhabitants of the house from harm

Superstition is a belief in a non-physical (i.e. supernatural) causality: that one event causes another without any physical process linking the two events. The word is often used pejoratively to refer to practices (e.g. Voodoo) other than the one prevailing in a given society (e.g. Christianity in western culture), although the prevailing religion may contain just as many supernatural beliefs. It is also commonly applied to beliefs and practices surrounding luck, prophecy and spiritual beings, particularly the belief that future events can be foretold by specific unrelated prior events.

Contents  [hide]  1 Etymology 2 Superstition and folklore 3 Superstition and religion 4 Superstition and psychology 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links

[edit] Etymology

The etymology is from the classical Latin superstitio, literally "a standing over [in amazement]", but other interpretations include an over-scrupulousness in religion or a "hold-over" from older beliefs.^[1] The word is attested in the 1st century BC, notably in Livy and Ovid, in the meaning of an unreasonable or excessive belief in fear or magic, especially foreign or fantastical ideas. Cicero, however, derives the term from the "superstitiosi" ("survivors"): parents indulging in excessive prayer and sacrifice hoping that their children would survive them to perform their necessary funeral rituals.^[2] By the 1st century AD, it came to refer to "religious awe, sanctity; a religious rite" more generally.^[3][4]

[edit] Superstition and folklore

Main article: Folk belief

To European medieval scholars the word was applied to any beliefs outside of or in opposition to Christianity; today it is applied to conceptions without foundation in, or in contravention of, scientific reasoning and knowledge.^[5] Many extant western superstitions are said to have originated during the plagues that swept through Europe.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Superstition and religion

See also: Evolutionary psychology of religion and Evolutionary origin of religions

In keeping with the Latin etymology of the word, religious believers have often seen other religions as superstition. Likewise, atheists and agnostics may regard any religious belief as superstition.
Greek and Roman pagans, who modeled their relations with the gods on political and social terms, scorned the man who constantly trembled with fear at the thought of the gods, as a slave feared a cruel and capricious master. Such fear of the gods (deisidaimonia^[6][7]) was what the Romans meant by "superstition" (Veyne 1987, p. 211). For some Christians, just such fears might be worn proudly as a name: Desdemona.^{[citation needed]}
The Roman Catholic Church considers superstition to be sinful in the sense that it denotes a lack of trust in the divine providence of God and, as such, is a violation of the first of the Ten Commandments. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states superstition "in some sense represents a perverse excess of religion" (para. #2110).
The Catechism attempts to dispel commonly held preconceptions or misunderstandings about Catholic doctrine relating to superstitious practices:

Superstition is a deviation of religious feeling and of the practices this feeling imposes. It can even affect the worship we offer the true God, e.g., when one attributes an importance in some way magical to certain practices otherwise lawful or necessary. To attribute the efficacy of prayers or of sacramental signs to their mere external performance, apart from the interior dispositions that they demand is to fall into superstition. Cf. Matthew 23:16–22 (para. #2111)

In his Prelude on the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, Martin Luther (who called the papacy "that fountain and source of all superstitions") accuses the popes of superstition:

"For there was scarce another of the celebrated bishoprics that had so few learned pontiffs; only in violence, intrigue, and superstition has it hitherto surpassed the rest. For the men who occupied the Roman See a thousand years ago differ so vastly from those who have since come into power, that one is compelled to refuse the name of Roman pontiff either to the former or to the latter.^[8]”

Some superstitions originated as religious practices that continued to be observed by people who no longer adhere to the religion that gave birth to the practice. Often the practices lost their original meaning in this process. In other cases, the practices are adapted to the current religion of the practitioner. As an example, during the Christianizing of Europe, pagan symbols to ward off evil were replaced with the Christian cross.
Many traditions hold many example of our common every day superstitions. To begin with, the traditional and rare four-leaf-clover is always said to bring good luck, as well as the horseshoe. In addition, some superstition actions are said to bring good luck: such as knocking on wood, crossing your fingers, and so on. Other mistakes are said to bring quite a lot of bad fortune: breaking a mirror, stepping on a crack, and walking under a ladder.

[edit] Superstition and psychology

In 1948, behavioural psychologist B.F. Skinner published an article in the Journal of Experimental Psychology, in which he described his pigeons exhibiting what appeared to be superstitious behaviour. One pigeon was making turns in its cage, another would swing its head in a pendulum motion, while others also displayed a variety of other behaviours. Because these behaviours were all done ritualistically in an attempt to receive food from a dispenser, even though the dispenser had already been programmed to release food at set time intervals regardless of the pigeons' actions, Skinner believed that the pigeons were trying to influence their feeding schedule by performing these actions. He then extended this as a proposition regarding the nature of superstitious behaviour in humans.^[9]
Skinner's theory regarding superstition being the nature of the pigeons' behaviour has been challenged by other psychologists such as Staddon and Simmelhag, who theorised an alternative explanation for the pigeons' behaviour.^[10]
Despite challenges to Skinner's interpretation of the root of his pigeons' superstitious behaviour, his conception of the reinforcement schedule has been used to explain superstitious behaviour in humans. Originally, in Skinner's animal research, "some pigeons responded up to 10,000 times without reinforcement when they had originally been conditioned on an intermittent reinforcement basis."^[11] Compared to the other reinforcement schedules (e.g. fixed ratio, fixed interval), these behaviours were also the most resistant to extinction.^[11] This is called the partial reinforcement effect, and this has been used to explain superstitious behaviour in humans. To be more precise, this effect means that, whenever an individual performs an action expecting a reinforcement, and none seems forthcoming, it actually creates a sense of persistence within the individual.^[12] This strongly parallels superstitious behaviour in humans because the individual feels that, by continuing this action, reinforcement will happen; or that reinforcement has come at certain times in the past as a result of this action, although not all the time, but this may be one of those times.
From a simpler perspective, natural selection will tend to reinforce a tendency to generate weak associations. If there is a strong survival advantage to making correct associations, then this will outweigh the negatives of making many incorrect, "superstitious" associations.<sup>[13]


Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition</sup>